Election commission related Questions

Q 1. Which authority conducts elections to the offices of the President and Vice-President of India ? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) Under Article 324(1) of the Constitution of India, the Election Commission of India, interalia, is vested with the power of superintendence, direction and control of conducting the elections to the offices of the President and Vice-President of India. Detailed provisions are made under the Presidential and Vice Presidential Elections Act, 1952 and the rules made thereunder. Q 2. Which authority conducts elections to Parliament? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) The same Article 324 also vests in the Commission the powers of superintendence, direction and control of the elections to both Houses of Parliament. Detailed provisions are made under the Representation of the People Act, 1951 and the rules made thereunder. Q 3. Which authority conducts elections to the State Legislative Assemblies and Legislative Councils? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) Article 324 (1) also vests in the Commission the powers of superintendence, direction and control of the elections to both Houses of the State Legislature. Detailed provisions are made under the Representation of the People Act, 1951 and the rules made thereunder. Q 4. Which authority conducts elections to Corporations, Municipalities and other Local Bodies ? Ans. The State Election Commissions (SECs) The State Election Commissions constituted under the Constitution (Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth) Amendments Act, 1992 for each State / Union Territory are vested with the powers of conduct of elections to the Corporations, Muncipalities, Zilla Parishads, District Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis, Gram Panchayats and other local bodies. They are independent of the Election Commission of India. Q 5. What is the present composition of the Election Commission? Ans. A Three - Member Body At present, the Election Commission of India is a three-member body, with one Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. Q 6. Has the Election Commission been a multi-member body from the beginning? Ans. No. It was not a multi member body from the beginning. It was a single - member body when it was first set up in 1950 and up to 15th October, 1989 with only the Chief Election Commissioner. From 16th October, 1989 upto the 1st January, 1990, it became a three-member body with R.V.S.Peri Sastri (C.E.C) and S.S.Dhanoa and V.S.Seigell as Election Commissioners. From 2nd January, 1990 to 30th September, 1993, it was a single-member Commission and again from 1st October, 1993 it has become a three-member Commission. Q 7. What is the status Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners in terms of salaries and allowances etc.? Ans. Equivalent to Supreme Court Judges. The Chief Election Commissioner and the two Election Commissioners draw salaries and allowances at par with those of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India as provided for by the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992. Q 8. What is the term of office of the Chief Election Commissioner? Is it different from the Election Commissioners? Ans. The Chief Election Commissioner or an Election Commissioner holds office for a term of six years from the date on which he assumes his office. However, where the Chief Election Commissioner or an Election Commissioner attains the age of sixty-five years before the expiry of the said term of six years, he shall vacate his office on the the date on which he attains sixty-five years of age. Q 9. When the Commissioner becomes a multi-member Commission, how are the decisions taken, whether by majority or by consensus? Ans. Section 10 of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Amendment Act, 1993 is reproduced below:- (1) The Election Commission may be by unanimous decision, regulate the procedure for transaction of to business as also allocation of its business amongst the Chief Election Commissioner and their Election Commissioners. (2) Save as provided in sub section (i) all business of the Election Commission shall, as far as possible, be transacted unanimously. (3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (ii), if the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners differ in opinion on any matter, such matter shall be decided by according to the opinion of the majority. Q 10. Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioners and Election Commissioners? Ans. The President. Under Article 324(2) of the Constitution of India, the President of India is empowered to appoint the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners. Q 11. Who fixes the number of Election Commissioners (other than Chief Election Commissioner)? Ans. The President. Article 324(2) also empowers the President of India to fix from time to time the number of Election Commissioners other than the Chief Election Commissioner. Q 12. Who supervises the election work in a State ? Ans. The Chief Electoral Officer (CEO). As per section 13A of the Representation of the People Act 1950, read with section 20 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, the Chief Electoral Officer of a State/ Union Territory is authorised to supervise the election work in the State/Union Territory subject to the overall superintendence, direction and control of the Election Commission. Q 13. Who appoints the Chief Electoral Officer? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) The Election Commission of India nominates or designates an Officer of the Government of the State/Union Territory as the Chief Electoral Officer in consultation with that State Government/Union Territory Administration. Q 14. Who supervises the election work in a District? Ans. The District Election Officer (DEO) As per section 13AA of the Representation of the People Act 1950, subject to the superintendence, direction and control of the Chief Electoral Officer, the District Election Officer supervises the election work of a district. Q 15. Who appoints the District Election Officer? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI). The Election Commission of India nominates or designates an Officer of the State Government as the District Election Officer in consultation with the State Government. Q 16. Who is responsible for the conduct of elections in any Parliamentary or Assembly constituency ? Ans. Returning Officer (RO) The Returning Officer of a parliamentary or assembly constituency is responsible for the conduct of elections in the parliamentary or assembly constituency concerned as per section 21 of the Representation of the People Act 1951. Q 17. Who appoints the Returning Officer? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) The Election Commission of India nominates or designates an officer of the Government or a local authority as the Returning Officer for each of the assembly and parliamentary constituencies in consultation with the State Government/Union Territory Administration. In addition, the Election Commission of India also appoints one or more Assistant Returning Officers for each of the assembly and parliamentary constituencies to assist the Returning Officer in the performance of his functions in connection with the conduct of elections. Q 18. Who is responsible for the preparation of electoral rolls for a Parliamentary or Assembly Constituency? Ans. Electoral Registration Officer (ERO) The Electoral Registration officer is responsible for the preparation of electoral rolls for a parliamentary / assembly constituency. Q 19. Who conducts the poll at a polling station? Ans. Presiding Officer The Presiding Officer with the assistance of polling officers conducts the poll at a polling station. Q 20. Who appoints the Electoral Registration officer? Ans. Under section 13B of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the Election Commission of India, in consultation with the State / UT Government, appoints an Officer of the Government or the Local Authorities as the Electoral Registration Officer. In addition, the Election Commission of India also appoints one or more Assistant Electoral Registration Officers to assist the Electoral Registration Officer in the performance of his functions in the matter of preparation / revision of electoral rolls. Q 21. Who appoints Presiding Officers and Polling Officers? Ans. District Election Officer (DEO) Under section 26 of the Representation of the People Act 1951, the District Election Officer appoints the Presiding Officers and the Polling Officers. In the case of Union Territories, such appointments are made by the Returning Officers. Q 22. Who appoints Observers? Ans. Election Commission of India (ECI) Under section 20B of the Representationof the People Act 1951, the Election Commission of India nominates officers of Government as Observers (General Observers and Election Expenditure Observers) for parliamentary and assembly constituencies. They perform such functions as are entrusted to them by the Commission. Earlier, the appointment of Observers was made under the plenary powers of the Commission. But with the amendments made to the Representation of the People Act, 1951 in 1996, these are now statutory appointments. They report directly to the Commission. Source Election commission of IndiaI

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Ayushman Bharat-National Health Protection Mission ✔

Ministry/Department : Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

Scheme:

The scheme will integrate two on-going centrally sponsored schemes viz. Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) and Senior Citizen Health Insurance Scheme (SCHIS).
AB-NHPM aims to target over 10 crore families belonging to poor and vulnerable population based on Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011 (SECC) database.
It will provide cover of Rs 5 lakh per family per year , taking care of almost all secondary care and tertiary care procedures.
There will be no cap on family size and age in the scheme.

Benefit cover:

It includes pre and post-hospitalisation expenses.
It will cover all pre-existing conditions from beginning of the policy.
It will also pay defined transport allowance per hospitalization to the beneficiary.

Cashless benefits:

The scheme allows the beneficiary to take cashless benefits from any public or private empanelled hospitals across the country.
The payment for treatment will be done on package rate which will be defined by Government in advance basis.
The package rates will include all the costs associated with treatment.

Role of state governments:

They will be allowed to expand the scheme both horizontally and vertically.
They will be free to choose modalities for implementation.
They can implement through insurance company or directly through Trust/ Society or a mixed model.

Implementation:

States/UTs will have also flexibility to modify these rates within limited bandwidth.
For beneficiaries, it will be cashless and paper less transaction.
States will be required to form State Health Agency (SHA) to implement scheme and at district level also, a structure for implementation of the scheme will be set up

Council:

For giving policy directions and fostering coordination between Centre and States, Ayushman Bharat National Health Protection Mission Council (AB-NHPMC) will be set up at apex level.
It will be chaired by Union Health and Family Welfare Minister.

Entitlement:

It is entitlement based scheme with entitlement decided on basis of deprivation criteria in SECC database.
Different categories of families covered under scheme are
Families having only one room with kucha walls and kucha roof,
families having no adult member between age 16 to 59,
female headed households with no adult male member between age 16 to 59,
disabled member and no able bodied adult member in family,
SC/ST households,
landless households deriving major part of their income from manual casual labour.
It will also automatically include families in rural areas having any one of the following-
households without shelter, destitute, living on alms, manual scavenger families, primitive tribal groups or legally released bonded labour.
For urban areas, 11 defined occupational categories will be entitled under scheme.

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Saubhagya - Yojna

Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (PMSBHGY) – “Saubhagya”

Saubhagya scheme or Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana is a 16,320 crore Central Government scheme. It was launched to provide electricity connections to over 40 million families in rural and urban areas by December 2018.

What is the need for the Saubhagya Scheme?

Even though, various efforts have been made to ensure universal connectivity under Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) in rural areas and Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS) in urban areas, the problem of electricity access remains. Under the DDUGJY, a village is considered electrified if it meets certain parameters included in the Electricity Act, 2003. These are:

• All public places such as schools, panchayat office, health centres, dispensaries and community centres have electricity connections.
• 10% of the households have an electricity connection.

Thus, there is no specification as to ‘universalisation’ at the household level. Also, the DDUGJY only focuses on connections and not on electricity supply. There are villages that are considered electrified under the scheme but have little to no availability of power for most of the day. Moreover, since the scheme focuses on only 10% of the households, it is often the most well off that are covered and the majority remain without electric power.Similarly, Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS) provides for creation of necessary infrastructure to provide electricity access in urban areas. Under the IPDS , there remain households that do not have access to electricity mainly because their economic condition is very weak.

From the above discussion it is clear that there is a need to improve not only access but availability as well. Hence, the Saubhagya scheme was visualised to be a truly universal scheme when it comes to electricity connections and access in the country. However, this scheme is not a ‘free electricity’ scheme but only one that provides for free connections for the poor.

How will the Saubhagya Scheme be implemented?

The Saubhagya scheme’s implementation is the duty of the respective State or Union territory. They are required to complete the electrification works by December 31, 2018. The Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC) will remain the nodal agency for the operationalisation of the scheme throughout the country.

The total outlay of the project is Rs. 16, 320 cr while the Gross Budgetary Support (GBS) is Rs. 12,320 cr. The outlay for the rural households is Rs. 14,025 crore while the GBS is Rs. 10,587.50 crore. For the urban households the outlay is Rs. 2,295 crore while GBS is Rs. 1,732.50 crore. The government will provide largely funds for the Scheme to all States/UTs. The states will make detailed project reports (DPRs) and submit them to the Centre following which funds will be disbursed.

How will the beneficiaries be identified?

The beneficiaries for free electricity connections would be identified using Socio Economic and Caste Census (SECC) 2011 data. However, un-electrified households not covered under the SECC data would also be provided electricity connections under the scheme on payment of Rs. 500 which shall be recovered by distribution companies/ power departments in 10 instalments through payment in the electricity bill.

What are the expected outcomes of the Saubhagya Scheme?

The government specified expected outcomes of the Saubhagya scheme are:

1. Access to all willing households
2. Environmental upgradation by substitution of Kerosene for lighting purposes
3. Improvement education services
4. Better health services
5. Enhanced connectivity through radio, television, mobiles, etc.
6. Increased economic activities and jobs
7. Improved quality of life especially for women

How will the bills/revenue be collected?

The Gram Panchayat/Public institutions in the rural areas may be authorised to collect application forms along with complete documentation, distribute bills and collect revenue in consultation with the Panchayat Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies. Or, as usual, the discoms can collect the bills if necessary infrastructure exists.

Is there a renewable energy component in the Saubhagya scheme?

As is mentioned in the policy document, the scheme provides for solar power packs of 200 to 300 Wp with battery bank for un-electrified households located in remote and inaccessible areas, comprising of :

• Five LED lights
• One DC fan
• One DC power plug

It also includes the Repair and Maintenance (R&M) of given products for 5 years.

This component is essential because it is often such households that are located in remote areas that have least access to electricity. Internationally, this problem is resolved by asking the consumer to pay a higher price for supplying electricity. This is done as most of the remotely located households in developed nations are usually large farms located centrally in their farmsteads stretching across hundreds of acres. This is not the case in India. The distribution companies in India cannot do that due to lack of purchasing power of most of the consumers located in far off inaccessible areas. Thus, the use of solar power packs has been modelled to reduce economic burden on the consumer from the discoms, if any.

How is the Saubhagya scheme different from ’24×7 Power For All’ initiative of the Government?

Earlier, the Government had launched the ’24 x 7 power for all’ initiative which was a joint initiative with the States. This covered all segments of the power sector – generation, transmission, distribution, energy efficiency, distribution companies’ health etc. Thus, its focus was broad based and on the entire value chain of the power sector to provide state/UT specific plans. The Saubhagya scheme on the other hand aims to provide last mile connectivity and electricity connections to all remaining un-electrified households in rural as well as urban areas. Its area of emphasis is thus narrower.

Conclusion

The Government of India has strived to provide universal electricity access since independence to all its citizens. Electric power has been recognized as the most important driver of modernization and technological progress. The government initiatives have thus been focused on providing access to electricity for all. The new schemes have been formulated based on the learnings and outcomes of the earlier existing schemes. In the Saubhagya scheme, the Government of India has focused on not only physical access to electricity but economic access to electricity as well. This will not only benefit the consumer at the individual level but the economy as well by allowing universal access to agricultural farmholds. Moreover, it will reduce the burden faced by women due to collection of firewood and exposure to smoke in the household from polluting sources of light. It will also allow more study hours for the children during the night especially in northern remote areas. Thus, it has an all round socio-economic benefit for all especially the poor and will be an important factor behind inclusive growth and open access to opportunity.

Name	Description
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana	To provide continuous power supply to rural India
Integrated Power Development Scheme	Creating and strengthening power infrastructure in urban areas.
Saubhagya Scheme	To provide last mile connectivity to electricity-less households
24 x 7 Power For All	To provide 24x7 power available to all households, industry, commercial businesses, public needs, any other electricity consuming entity
Ujjwal Discom Assurance Yojana (UDAY)	Financial Turnaround; Operational improvement; Reduction of cost of generation of power; Development of Renewable Energy; Energy efficiency & conservation

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IMPRINT-INDIA

Ministry/Department : Department of Science & Technology and HRD Ministry

Aims to boost research and innovation in India.

Scheme:

IMPRINT India Programme is joint initiative of Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc).
It seeks to develop road map for research to solve major engineering and technology challenges in 10 technology domains relevant for country.
These domains include health care, information and communication technology, energy, sustainable habitat, nano ‐technology hardware, water resources and river systems, advanced materials, manufacturing, security and defence, and environment and climate.
These domains are distributed among IITs Kharagpur, Kanpur, Bomaby, Rookree, Madras and IISC, Bengaluru.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development has sanctioned Rs. 1000 crore for phase II of Impacting Research Innovation and Technology (IMPRINT) India programme to boost research and innovation in the country.
Under the IMPRINT-II, a fund is being created by Department of Science and Technology (DST) and HRD Ministry together, in which participation will come from industry and other interested Ministries.

Objectives of IMPRINT

Identify areas of immediate relevance that requires innovation in the society.
Ensure support and higher funding for research for identified areas.
Measure outcomes of innovation and research efforts and its impact on people’s standard of living.

Significance

It will motivate technical institutions to conduct research in areas where the country is heavily dependent on foreign technology.
Under IMPRINT-I Programme, 142 projects at cost of Rs. 318.71 crore are already under implementation.
These projects cover 10 crucial technology domains mentioned above.



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Schemes announced in Union Budget 2018-19

 

The  Union  Finance  Minister  Arun  Jaitley  announced  various  schemes  in  the  Union  Budget  2018-19  on February  1,  2018.  These  Budget  schemes  have  been  announced  with  the  objective  to  uplift  the  poor  and farmers.

 Here,  we’ll  see  all  the  new  schemes  launched  by  the  government  in  Budget  2018-19. 

Kifayati  Aawas yojna/Affordable  Housing  Fund (AHF) 

  Affordable  Housing  Fund  (AHF)  will  be  created  under  National  Housing  Bank  (NHB). 
It  will  be  funded  from  priority  sector  lending  shortfall  and  fully  serviced  bonds  authorised  by Central  Government. 
 The government  has  planned  that  by  the  end  of  2022,  everyone  will  have  their  own  house.
  It  will  be  used  to  construct one  crore  households  in  the  rural  areas  Pradhanmantri  Awas  Yojana.

 National  Health  Protection  Scheme 

National  Health  Protection  Scheme  (Ayushman  Bharat  Scheme)  will  cover  10  crore  poor  and vulnerable  families.

 Under  it,  up  to  Rs  5  lakh  insurance  cover  will  be  provided  to  each  family  per  year  in  secondary and  tertiary  care  institutions. 
  It  will  have  50  crore  beneficiaries.  It  will  be  world‟s  largest  government-funded  healthcare programme.

 Kisan  Credit  Card to  Fishermen:   

 On  the  lines  of  the  Kisan  Credit  Card,  the  Finance  Minister  has  announced  a  card  to  fishermen and  cattle  owners.     This  will  make  enable  them  to  avail  the  easier  loans.  The  Government  says  that  this  will  help  the people  associated  with  the  milk  production  business  in  rural  areas.     Apart  from  this,  financial  assistance  will  also  be  provided  to  fisheries.

Gobar-Dhan  Yojna 

  Gobar-Dhan  Yojana  (also  known  as  Galvanizing  Organic  Bio-Agro  Resource  Fund  scheme)  aims  to improve  lives  of  the  villagers.
Under it,  solid  waste  of  dung  and  fields  will  be  changed  into  compost,  biogas  and  bio-CNG.

National  Bamboo  Mission 

  ₹1,290  crore  will  be  allocated  under  this  scheme  to  help  development  of  bamboo  production  as  an industry  in  the  country. 
 This  will  help  the  people  of  rural  and  tribal  areas.

Prime  Minister  Fellowship  Scheme 

 It  is  aimed  at  facilitating  cutting  edge  research  by  provide  high  fellowship  amounts  to  1000  B. Tech  students  to  pursue  PhD  in  IITs  and  IISc. 

 Its  purpose  is  to  make  to  produce  better  research  in  India  and  make  its  institutions  climb  up  in global  rankings.

Revitalising  Infrastructure  and Systems in  Education  (RISE)  Scheme 

  RISE  scheme  aims  to  lend  low-cost funds  to  government  higher  educational  institutions. 
It  will  be  launched  with  a  total  investment  of  Rs.  1  lakh crore  in  the  next  four  years. 
  It  will  be  financed  via  restructured  higher  education  financing  agency  (HEFA),  a  non-banking financial  company.

Eklavya  School 

  Eklavya  schools  will  be  established  for  scheduled  caste  (SC)  and  schedule  tribe  students  by  2022 on  the  lines  of  Navodaya  schools.
They  will  be  model  residential  schools  set  up  in  each  Block.  It  will  in  areas  with  more  than  50% tribal  areas  and  20,000  tribal  people. 
These  schools  will  be  part  of  Navodaya  Vidyalayas. 
It  will  provide  training  in  sports  and  skill  development.  It  has  special  facilities  for  preserving  local art  and  culture.

Operation  Green 

  It  will  be  launched  with  an  allocation  of  Rs  500  crore  on  the  lines  of  Operation  Flood. 
  It  aims  to  promote  farmer  producers  organisations,  processing  facilities,  agri-logistics  and professional  management. 
  It  also  aims  to  aid  farmers  and  help  control  and  limit  erratic  fluctuations  in  the  prices  of  tomatoes, onions  and  potatoes  (TOP). 
  It  is  essentially  price  fixation  scheme  that  aims  to  ensure  farmers  are  given  the  right  price  for  their produce. 

The idea  behind  it  is  to  double  the  income  of farmers  by  the  end  of  2022.

 National  Bamboo  Mission 

₹1,290  crore  will  be  allocated  under  this  scheme  to  help  development  of  bamboo  production  as  an industry  in  the  country.
This  will  help  in  the  development  of  bamboo  production  as  an  industry.

This  will  also  help  the  people  of  rural  and  tribal  areas.

 Saubhagya  Yojna 

  The  government  has  targeted  to  increase  the  number  of  power  connections  in  rural  areas  to  40 million  households.  This  scheme  is  one  of  PM  Modi's  ambitious  plans.

Expansion  of  PM  Vaya  Vandana  Yojana   

The Pradhan  Mantri  Vaya  Vandana  Yojana  was  launched  on  4th  May  2017. 

  

The scheme  provides  regular  pension  income  to  senior  citizens  (60  years  or  more).   

The budget 2018-19  proposed  to  open  this  scheme  for  investment  till  March  2020.   

Apart  from  extending  the  scheme‟s  investment  duration,  the  investment  limit  is  also  increased  to Rs15  lakh from  7.5  Lakh per  person. 

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All about ozone - including Current issues

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1. The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of
2. Earth 's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun 's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O 3 
3. Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers from the planet's surface
4. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
5. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson 
6. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. 
7. The " Dobson unit ", a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.
8. In 1976 atmospheric research revealed that the ozone layer was being depleted by chemicals released by industry, mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

1. The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer .

1. About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and 131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 inch) thick.
2. Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10–100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm).
3. Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this longer-wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer
4. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer .
5. Nevertheless, some UV-B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin's production of vitamin D .
6. UV-C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude
7. 😊scientists have discovered that certain chemicals react with UV radiation in the stratosphere, which causes them to break apart and release chlorine or bromine atoms. These atoms, in turn, destroy ozone molecules.
8. Ozone-depleting substances (ODS ), which include (CFCs) and (HCFCs), were once used widely in refrigerants, insulating foams, solvents, and other applications. These substances all release chlorine atoms into the stratosphere. A single chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.
9. Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include  methyl bromide (used as a pesticide) halons (used in fire extinguishers), andmethyl chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial processes). As methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms, which are 60 times more destructive to ozone molecules than chlorine atoms.
10. 16 September  The date was chosen because the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed on September 16, 1987.
11. Ozone is a pungent smelling blue gas. A molecule of ozone consists of three oxygen atoms.
12. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the
13. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on  1 January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 ( London), 1991 ( Nairobi ), 1992 ( Copenhagen), 1993 ( Bangkok ), 1995 ( Vienna), 1997 ( Montreal), 1998 ( Australia ), 1999 ( Beijing ) and 2016 ( Kigali , adopted, but not in force)
14. Ratifiers countries are 197 
15.  In the 28 meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197 nations have signed a historic agreement to amend the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, a capital city of a tiny African country, Rwanda on 15 October 2016.
16. As per the agreement, these countries are expected to reduce the manufacture and use of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-85% from their respective baselines, till 2045.
17. This phase down is expected to arrest the global average temperature rise up to 0.5 C by 2100.

Kigali agreement is an amendment to Montreal Protocol

1. Kigali Agreement: Important Points
2. It is a legally binding agreement between the signatory parties with non-compliance measures.
3. It will come into effect from 1st January 2019 provided it is ratified by at least 20 member parties by then.
4. It has shown a considerable flexibility in approach while setting phase-down targets for different economies accommodating their developmental aspirations, different socio-economic compulsions, and scientific & technological capabilities.
5. It has divided the signatory parties into three groups-

1. 1. The first group consists of rich and developed economies like USA, UK and EU countries who will start to phase down HFCs by 2019 and reduce it to 15% of 2012 levels by 2036.

•  2. The second group consists of emerging economies like China, Brazil as well as some African countries who will start phase down by 2024 and reduce it to 20% of 2021 levels by 2045.

• 3. The third group consists of developing economies and some of the hottest climatic countries like India, Pakistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia who will start phasing down HFCs by 2028 and reduce it to 15% of 2024-2026 levels till 2047.

1. It also has a provision for a multilateral fund for developing countries for adaptation and mitigation.
2. The Technology and Energy Assessment Panel (TEAP) will take a periodic review of the alternative technologies and products for their energy efficiency and safety standards.
3. Why is Kigali Agreement significant?
4. It strengthens the Paris Agreement which sets an ambitious target of restricting the rise in global temperature below 2 Celsius, as compared to pre-industrial level.
5. Unlike Paris agreement, it gives clear, concrete and mandatory targets with fixed timelines to the signatory parties to achieve their targets.
6. It would prevent the emission of HFCs equivalent to 70 billion tons of CO2.

Kigali Amendment and India

India played a very flexible and cooperative role in the whole negotiating process.

It has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes only 3% of HFCs as compared to the other nations like the USA (37%) and China (25%).

It would be tough for Indian to adhere to this agreement along with Paris Pact especially when it has embarked on an ambitious ” Make in India ” Programme to increase its industrial production.

It should also take into consideration the hot climatic conditions and growing demand for air conditioners, refrigerators, and cars with growing middle-class incomes while implementing the program.

Still, as a responsible nation with a global perspective, the Indian government has voluntarily passed the order to stop the production of HFC-23 which is a byproduct of commonly used refrigerant. This will reduce the emission by 100 million tons equivalent of Carbon dioxide in next 15 years.

Implications of Kigali Agreement on India

Indian industries using HFCs like Air-Conditioning industry, Automobiles, and refrigeration industry have some serious implications on financial and technical fronts:

1. Financial implications – Industries have to either invest in R & D to find out the substitutes for HFCs or they have to buy patented substances and technologies from other MNCs. Consequently, the cost of production will increase which may ultimately shrink the buyer base for their products.

 2. Technological implications – Some of the developed nations have already started using substitutes of HFCs in their products and have a sound technological knowledge about their use. Without technology transfer or research, it would be difficult for domestic industries to compete with them in global as well as domestic market.

On a positive side, this will incentivise business and scientific fraternity to invest their financial and intellectual resources in finding out more economic and environment- friendly technological alternatives.

References

1. Aljazeera .

 2. TheWire .

 3. FinancialExpress .

 4. Scroll . 

5. IndianExpress .

 6. UNEP. 

7. TheGuardian .. 

8. Nature . 

9. Wikipedia .

1.  ​

International Solar Alliance - ISA

International Solar Alliance (ISA)

• First international treaty-based organisation that enables co-operation among sun-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, as this is the region worldwide with a surplus of bright sunlight for most of the year, who are seeking to ramp up solar energy, thereby helping to bend the global greenhouse emissions curve whilst providing clean and cheap energy.
• Jointly announced by PM of India and President of France following the Paris Declaration at the UN Climate Change Conference on November 30, 2015.

Vision: Promotion of solar energy for making solar energy a valuable source of affordable and reliable green and clean energy in member countries

ISA Headquarter and interim Secretariat:Gurugram, India

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Goals and Focus Areas:

The ISA has set a target of 1 TW of solar energy by 2030, which would require $1 trillion to achieve. India has set an ambitious target of 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022, which includes 100 GW of solar and 60 GW of wind energy.

The key focus areas of the alliance are

• Promoting solar technologies, new business models and investment in the solar sector,
• Formulate projects and programmes to promote solar applications
• Develop innovative financial mechanisms to reduce cost of capital build
• A common knowledge e-Portal to facilitate capacity building for promotion and absorption of solar technologies
• R&D among member countries

Significance of the First ISA summit – Delhi Summit

India can lead in the global environmental diplomacy: First time, the HQ is in India.

• What makes ISA a true game-changer is that it is a partnership of mostly developing countries, which despite being endowed with excellent solar insolation, are among the most energy-poor.
• Welcome departure from the times when deliberations over the transfer of climate-friendly technologies were hostage to the entrenched positions of the US, EU and developing countries.

A clear call for Technology Transfer:

• Poor technological capabilities could come in the way of countries that get about 300 days of sunshine in a year will bring down their chances of leveraging the platform.
• India is focusing on decentralizing energy resources for their level of development by working on basic projects like electrification, green pumps, and green buildings.
• Need to focus on ‘Make in India’ and come up with green technology. As the economies of scale increase, the cost of production will come down.

Need for concessional and less-risky finances for raising the share of solar electricity available for such projects to achieve the ISA target of over 1000 GW of solar generation capacity and mobilisation of investment of over $1 trillion by 2030.

• Financing the solar projects in many developing countries has high cost. Initiatives have to be taken by ISA to increase the attractiveness of solar potential.
• Multilateral banks and agencies need to support the developing countries to develop solar technology. Need for long term finance at less interest to increase the solar footprint.

Conclusion:

Climate change is one of the most serious problems that we face at the moment. India is driving the climate dialogue and there is a fundamental shift – through the ISA, India has signaled the world that it has the capacity to reach and potential to become a major power. If it succeeds, India will have presented the world with an alternative model of development, one that is collaborative, equitable, practical, transformative and sustainable. And in ensuring the deployment of solar applications, ISA can essay transformational change — a shift to more sustainable systems of production and consumption, while bringing millions of those unserved by modern energy and economic systems into the fold.

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S&T February important topics - 2nd week

India successfully test-fires nuclear capable Prithvi-II

 Context:
• India test-fires nuclear capable Prithvi-I
Introduction:
• India recently successfully test-fired it’s indigenously developed nuclear capable Prithvi-II missile as part of a user trial by the Army from a test range in Odisha.
• The trial of the surface-to-surface missile, with a strike range of 350 km, was carried out from a mobile launcher from launch complex-3 of the Integrated Test Range at Chandipur.
About Prithvi-I:
• The Prithvi-I is a short-range, road-mobile, liquid propellant ballistic missile.
• India developed the missile with European assistance, and its motor and guidance system were originally based on the Russian S-75 Guideline surface-to-air missile.
• It uses a single-stage, liquid propellant engine, which is essentially two liquid propellant motors side-by-side that provide aerodynamic control as well as thrust vectoring. 

Agni 1 test-fired off the Odisha coast

Context: • India successfully test-fired its short-range nuclear capable ballistic missile Agni-1 with a strike range of over 700 km from a test range off the Odisha coast. Introduction:  • The indigenously developed surface-to-surface missile was launched as a part of a periodic training activity by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) of the Army to consolidate operational readiness. • The sophisticated Agni-I missile is propelled by a solid rocket propellant system and is equipped with a specialised navigation system that ensures it reaches the target with a high degree of precision. About Agni-I: • Agni-I is a short-range ballistic missile developed by DRDO of India under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program.  • It is a single-stage missile developed after the Kargil War to fill the gap between 250 km range of Prithvi-II and 2,500 km range of Agni-II.  • It was first launched on 25 January 2002 from a road mobile launcher at Integrated Test Range (ITR), Wheeler Island • Less than 75 launchers are deployed.

NASA to test deep space atomic clock

Context:
• NASA is planning to send its new deep space atomic clock on a flight aboard a spacecraft, to test the system’s ability to provide accurate on-board timekeeping for future missions.
Introduction:
• In deep space, accurate timekeeping is vital to navigation, but not all spacecraft have precise timepieces aboard.
• NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in the U.S. has been perfecting the Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC), an instrument being built for deep space exploration.
Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC):
• The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) is a miniaturized, ultra-precise mercury-ion atomic clock for precise radio navigation in deep space.
• It is orders of magnitude more stable than existing navigation clocks, and has been refined to limit drift of no more than 1 nanosecond in 10 days.
• It is expected to improve the precision of deep space navigation, and enable more efficient use of tracking networks. 
• The project is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory .
• The project will be deployed as part of the U.S. Air Force's Space Test Program 2 (STP-2) mission aboard a Space X Falcon Heavy rocket in April 2018.

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• Russian authorities have demanded over $20 million for rectifying the damage suffered by nuclear submarine INS Chakra.
Introduction:
• Russia has quoted $20 million portion, which was damaged while the submarine was entering the harbour in Visakhapatnam. 
• The developments around INS Chakra come even as the indigenously built nuclear ballistic missile submarine INS Arihant, which had suffered extensive damage because of human error over a year ago.
INS Arihant:
• INS Arihant Earlier in August 2016, India had quietly inducted its first indigenously built nuclear ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) Arihant into into service completing its nuclear triad.
• INS Arihant is the lead ship of India’s Arihant class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines.
• The 6,000 tonne vessel was built under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project at the Ship Building Centre in the port city of Visakhapatnam.
INS Chakra:
• INS Chakra is a nuclear-powered submarine which was taken by India on lease from Russia in 2012 for a period of 10 years.
• INS Chakra is propelled by a 190 MW nuclear reactor.​