Indus River system

The important facts about the rivers are as follows:

The Indus River (also called the Sindhū or Abāsīn) is one of the longest rivers in the Asia.
Originating in the Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, towards Gilgit and Baltistan and then flows in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh.

Tributaries
- left	Zanskar River, Suru River, Soan River,Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River,Beas River, Sutlej River, Panjnad River
- right	Shyok River, Hunza River, Gilgit River,Swat River, Kunar River, Kabul River,Kurram River, Gomal River, Zhob River

Length	3,610 km (2,243 mi)
Basin	1,165,000 km2 (449,809 sq mi)

Tributaries

Beas River

Chenab River

Gar River

Gilgit River

Gomal River

Hunza River

Jhelum River

Kabul River

Kunar River

Kurram River

Panjnad River

Ravi River

Shyok River

Soan River

Suru River

Satluj River

Swat River

Zanskar River

Zhob River

Indus River

• Indus River originates in Tibet in northern slopes of Mount Kailash near lake Mansarovar. Running via Ladakh, it enters into Pakistan through Gilgit-Baltistan and ends in Arabian Sea near Karachi.
• The total length of the river is 3,180 kilometers, making it Pakistan’s longest river and world’s 21st largest river in terms of annual flow. The river basin is 11,165,000 square kilometers.
• Several tributaries of Indus River in Pakistan side are Nagar River, Astor River, Balram River, Dras River, Gar River, Ghizar River, Gilgit River, Gumal River Kabul River, Kurram River, Panjnad River, Shigar River, Shyok River, Sohan River, Tanubal River, Zanskar River etc.
• On the eastern side, portion of it does run through Indian territory, as do parts of the courses of its five major tributaries viz. Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej. These tributaries are the source of the name of the Punjab region.

Beas River

• Originates in the southern slopes of Pir Panjal ranges near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• It flows south past Manali and through the Kullu Valley before entering the Punjab plains. It meets the Sutlej River near the Harike Wetland south of Amritsar. The Sutlej continues into Pakistani Punjab and joins the Chenab River at Uch near Bahawalpur to form the Panjnad River; the latter in turn joins the Indus River at Mithankot. So, originating in India and running for 470 kilometers, the river meets Sutlej in Punjab of India.
• The river is of Historic, known as Arjikuja and Vipasa in ancient times and Hyphasis to ancient Greeks.
• Some of the tributaries of the river Beas are as
  Parbati which rises in the snowy wastes above Manikaran. It joins the river Beas near Shamshi in the Kulu valley;
  Haria which joins the river Beas near Bhuntar;
  Sainj which rises in the snows of an off-shoot of the Pir Panjal range that marks the watershed of the Seas and Satluj rivers. It joins the river Beas near Larji;
  Tirthan which rises in the snows of an off-shoot of the Pir Panjal range. It joins the river Beas near Larji.

Jhelum River

• Jhelum rises from northern slopes of Pir Panjal ranges at Verinag spring (which is main source)which girdles the valley of Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular Lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.
• The Kishenganga (Neelum) River, the largest tributary of the Jhelum, joins it, at Domel Muzaffarabad. The Jhelum enters the Punjab in the Jhelum District. From there, it flows through the plains of Pakistan’s Punjab, forming the boundary between the Chaj and Sindh Sagar Doabs.
• It ends in a confluence with the Chenab at Trimmu in District Jhang. The Chenab merges with the Sutlej to form the Panjnad River which joins the Indus River at Mithankot. Thus, In India it flows on in Jammu & Kashmir State.
• Jhelam is the largest and most western of the five rivers of Punjab. Chenab is its tributary. It was called Vitasta in Rigveda and Hydaspes by the ancient Greeks. Alexander the Great and his army crossed the Jhelum in BC 326 at the Battle of the Hydaspes River where it is believed that he defeated the Indian king, Porus.
• Verinag is situated at a distance of approximately 80 km from Srinagar. Considered to be the source of the River Jhelum, often termed as the lifeline of the province of Jammu and Kashmir, the beautiful region of Verinag a weekend getaway from Srinagar. The important dams and barrages on Jhelam river are Mangla Dam, Rasul Barrage, Trimmu Barrage.
• Its major tributaries are –
  Liddar which originates in the snowy wastes at Chandanwari. It joins the river Jhelum in the central pan of the Kashmir valley;
  Sind River which originates in the southern slopes of the great Himalayan range which hems the Kashmir valley;
  Kishenganga which also originates on the southern slopes of the great Himalayan range.

Chenab River

• Chenab River was called Ashkini in Vedic times. It originates at snow melt from the Bara Lacha Pass in the Himachal Pradesh. The waters flowing south from the pass are known as the Chandra River and those that flow north are called the Bhaga River.Eventually the Bhaga flows around to the south joining the Chandra at the village of Tandi, forming the Chandrbhaga River at Tandi.
• It becomes the Chenab when it joins the Marau River at Bhandera Kot, 12 km from Kishtwar Town in Jammu and Kashmir. It flows in the Indian state of Jammu & Kashmir, then Pakistan Province of Punjab and merges with Jhelum River at Trimmu, Ravi River Ahmedpur Sialand Sutlej River near Uch Sharif, Pakistan to form the Panjnad or the ‘Five Rivers’, the fifth being the Beas River which joins the Satluj near Ferozepur, India. The Chenab then joins the Indus at Mithankot, Pakistan.
• The total length of the Chenab is approximately 960 kilometres.The waters of the Chenab are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty. It was known as Acesines to the Ancient Greeks.

Ravi River

• The Ravi or Iravati or Purushni of ancient India is smallest of Five Punjab Rivers. It originates in Bara Bhangal, District Kangra in Himachal Pradesh and gets hemmed by Dhauladhar range in the south and the Pir Panjal in the north. It originates in Bara Bangahal as a joint stream formed by:
  The Bhadal. which is fed by glaciers.
  The Tant Gari, which is also fed by glaciers.
• The river Ravi flows in more or less westerly direction before it cuts across the Dhauladhar range to enter the plains of Punjab. Its main northern bank tributaries are the snow fed Siul and Baira streams. It follows a north-westerly course, flows through Barabhangal, Bara Bansu and Chamba districts. It flows in rapids in its initial reaches with boulders seen scattered in the bed of the river. The Budhil River, in Himachal Pradesh is a major tributary of the Ravi River. Another major tributary that joins the Ravi River, just below Bharmour, the old capital of Chamba, is the Seul River from the northern direction.
• The valley formed by the river was also exploited for its rich timber trees. However, the valley has large terraces, which are very fertile and known as “the garden of Chamba”. crops grown here supply grains to the capital region and to Dalhousie town and its surrounding areas. One more major tributary that joins the Ravi River near Bissoli is the Siawa. It enters the Punjab plain near Madhopur and Pathankot. It then flows along the Indo–Pak border for80 kilometres (50 mi) before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab River. The total length of the river is about 725 kilometres.
• Since this river flows at the boundary of India and Pakistan, studies have shown that the river is changing its course towards India due to heavy constructions in its way by Pakistan.

Sutlej River

• Sutlej River was known as Śutudri in ancient India and is longest of the five rivers of Punjab. It originates near Lake Rakshastal in Tibet. It flows for a considerable distance before entering Indian Territory near Shipki La. Thereafter, it drains past the trans-Himalayan zone of Spiti. The major tributary which joins the river Satluj in this tract is the river Spiti. This tributary rises on the northern slopes of the great Himalayan range which hems the Lahaul and Spiti valleys. It drains the latter valley and flows in a eastern and south westerly direction before joining the river Satluj. The river Satluj has cut across the great Himalayan range through a deep gorge.
• Just upstream of this gorge, it is joined by the river Baspa which drains the north eastern part of Himachal Pradesh. After crossing the great Himalayan range, the river Satluj flows in a more or less S W direction before emerging into the plains near Bhakra. In Pakistan, it waters the ancient and historical former Bahawalpur state. The region to its south and east is arid, and is known as Cholistan, is a part of Bahawalpur Division.
• The Sutlej is joined by the Beas River in Hari-Ke-Patan, Amritsar, Punjāb, India, and continues southwest into Pakistan to unite with the Chenab River, forming the Panjnad River near Bahawalpur. The Panjnad joins the Indus River at Mithankot. Indus then flows through a gorge near Sukkur, flows through the fertile plains region of Sindh, and terminates in the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Pakistan.The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan, and are mostly diverted to irrigation canals in India.

Source :Wikipedia

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Climate of Jammu and kashmir

Climate has been defined as the average weather conditions at a specific place over a lengthy period of time, i.e., more than 30 years, while the conditions of the atmosphere at any place at a specific time or for a short time is known as weather.

The climate of Jammu and Kashmir is to a large extent influenced by the mountains it is surrounded by. The temperature is greatly moderated by these mountains and the water bodies. As the altitude varies in Jammu Kashmir, all the three divisions experience a different environment. While Kashmir has a moderate climate, Ladakh is a cold desert with extreme temperatures and Jammu is a sub-tropical region with abundant sunshine and hot temperature.

Weather conditions are different at different places. There are many causes of difference:
1. Relief is the main factor. Lofty mountains like the Pirpanjal, the Zanskar and the Karakoram check winds from blowing in thus moisture is stopped from entering the valleys by the lofly mountains.
2. The Monsoon winds in summer cause rain in the Outer Plains and the Outer Hills. But these winds can cross the Pirpanjal range only when they are very strong. In winter winds from the Mediterranean cause snow and rain in the Valley of Kashmir. Snow falls on the mountains which enclose the valley.
3. Forests influence winds, rainfall and temperature. The moisture laden winds cause rainfall in the forests on the hills making the temperature to fall in summer. Thus the climate of Pahalgam, Gulmarg etc. is comparatively milder than that of Srinagar or Sopore.
4. Altitude is also a factor. So the climate of the valley of Kashmir is comparatively milder than that of the Outer Plain that lie on a very low altitude. The rainfall also varies as the altitude rises.

JAMMU

Climate of the Jammu Division:

From the point of view of climate, the Jammu Division is divisible into two parts, i.e.,

(i) The plain region, lying to the south of the Siwaliks, and

(ii) The mountainous region, stretching over the Middle and the Greater Himalayas in the districts of Doda, Rajauri, Poonch and Udhampur.

The climate of the plain region and the Middle Himalayas including the Pir Panjal in characterised by a rhythm of seasons which is caused by the re­versal of winds in the form of the south-west and the north-east monsoons. The reversal of pressure takes place regularly twice in the course of a year. The mean monthly temperature at the Jammu City reads well above the 20°C, the annual range of temperature being about 17°C.

The outstanding feature of the annual march of temperature is the occurrence of maximum before the commencement of summer monsoon, i.e., in the month of May or June. There may be a secondary maximum again just after the rainy sea­son in the second half of September. In general, the maximum temperatures occur during the period of clear skies, increasing isolation and a water- budget deficit before the onset of more persistent cloudiness and heavy rain

In the plain and lower reaches of the Himalayas, the temperature starts rising in the month of March. The mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures in March being 23°C and 12°C at Jammu. In the month of April the day and night temperatures read 32°C and 18°C respectively which jumps to 38°C and 25°C in the month of May. June is the hottest month at Jammu, recording a mean monthly temperature of about 31.65°C.

On indi­vidual day in the month of May or June the maximum temperature, however, may read up to 47°C 0une 1953). The relative humidity in May falls to below 20 per cent. All the towns lying to the south of the Siwaliks (Akhnur, Hiranagar, Kathua, Samba, etc.) observe intense tropical heat in the months of May and June.

During the summer season in the City of Jammu and its environs, a cool wind descends from the Siwaliks in the night time which is locally known as Dadu. This cool local wind has a salubrious influence on the health of the people, enhancing their efficiency and vital­ity.

In the summer season the mild morning breeze becomes warm around 10 a.m. and hot in the noon which blows steadily from west to east. This hot local wind is locally known as ‘Loo’. Under the impact of Loo (hot wind) the land becomes parched, the green vegetables wither and fodder crops like Barseem, and Ruzka orchards, maize, fodder, sugarcane and vegetable fields are repeatedly irrigated to protect them from the scorching heat. At the oc­currence of Loo the outdoor activities of farmers remain suspended and they go to their fields only after 4 p.m. to resume work.

At the outbreak of summer monsoon, the temperature comes down. The cloudy weather and high relative humidity help in the reduction of the day and night temperatures in the months of July, August and September read around 34°C and 35°C, while the mean minimum temperature reads around 25°C 

The mean minimum temperature declines suddenly in the month of October, being only 17.5°C, yet the day temperature reads around 32°C. There is further decline in the mercury in the months of No­vember. The winters are well set in December in which the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature comes down to 22°C and 7.7°C respec­tively. January is the coldest month in the plain areas of Jammu in which the average monthly temperature reads around 13°C 

The occurrence of frost, fog and mist is quite frequent in the morning hours of December, January and February. At the occurrence of fog and mist the visibility is reduced to few metres which hampers the movement of vehicular traffic and the takeoff and landing of the aero planes. The frost is highly injurious to vegetables, orchards, floriculture and sugarcane.

The chil­lies wither immediately at the occurrence of frost. Moreover, in the cold weather season cold wind blows from north to south, i.e., from the snow- covered peaks and ranges of the greater Himalayas to the plain areas. The biting cold winds and the fluctuating relative humidity makes the weather either keen or raw. The Siwaliks and the Nawanchoch ridge in the vicinity of the plain act as a barrier against the cold and dry winds from the north.

The climate and weather conditions of the mountainous tract of the Jammu Division are altogether different from that of the plain areas. In the mountainous areas, the Pir Panjal Range of the Lower Himalayas, the snow- covered peaks of the Greater Himalayas, the rugged topography and aspect of slope have a close influence on the temperature and precipitation.

The ori­entation of the valleys, whether they are longitudinal or transverse, also influence significantly the general weather conditions. It is because of these factors that Ramban town, situated on the right bank of Chenab and sur­rounded by barren, dark coloured rocks, records higher temperatures to that of Batote, though both of them are located within a crow-fly distance of about 25 km from each other.

The Upper Chenab region stretches over the Greater Himalayas. The meteorological stations of Bhadarwah and Kishtwar situated in this region record very low temperatures (-15°C) in the winter season. In the Lower and Upper Himalayas of the Jammu Division, although rainfall recording sta­tions are at Banihal, Batote, Bhadarwah Doda, Kishtwar, Poonch, Rajauri Ramban, Ramsu, Riasi etc. have been established, reliable data on tempera­ture, pressure and relative humidity are not available.

Being situated in higher altitudes, the winters at all these stations are severe and they record light to heavy snowing in the month of December, January and February. The presence of lofty mountain ranges prevent the penetration of warm winds from the scorching plains of the south. The months of March to May are pleasantly warm in the mountainous region of the Jammu Division.

Rainfall in the hilly tract is recorded in almost all the twelve months of a year with a maxima in July and August. In fact, about 75 per cent of the overage annual rainfall at all the rainfall recording stations of the hilly and mountainous areas is recorded during the season of Barsat (general rains). At the occurrence of heavy rains in July and August and January and February there occur heavy landslides along the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway, especially in the Nashri area between Batote Rambam and Banihal.

The months of July and August are the wettest at Jammu, recording an average monthly rainfall of about 275 and 250 mm respectively. There is oc­casional thundering and lightning in the rainy and winter seasons, thundering activity in however, greatest at the beginning and the ending part of the rainy season. As the rainy season becomes established, the cunmlous and nimbus clouds persist and bring more rainfall in July and August. The month of November is almost rainless in which the average monthly rainfall is only about 8 mm. It is the period of clear skies and cool morning breeze which is considered to be the month of invigorating climate.

The monsoon reaches the Jammu Division in the last week of June or in the first week of July and lasts till the 20 of September. The southern parts of the Jammu Division in which Akhnur, Basoli, Bishnah, Hiranagar, Kathua, Jammu and Samba are situated most of the rainfall comes in the sea­son of advancing monsoon. As the altitude increases towards the Middle Himalayan mountains (Batote, Bhadarwah, Ramban, Banihal, Kishtwar, etc). The summer rainfall averages more, being around 1500 mm. The aver­age annual rainfall at the Jammu city is about 965 mm out of which 725 mm or 75 per cent come during the season of general rains.

Rainfall in the winter season occurs from the western disturbances. The average rainfall at Jammu during winters (December to March) is about 150 mm. This rainfall is highly beneficial to the standing rabi crops of wheat, peas, gram, fodder and vegetables.

In areas of higher altitudes of the Greater Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range snowing is frequent from December to March. A marked characteristic of rainfall of the Jammu Division is the de­crease in precipitation from east to west and north-west. Moreover, leeward slopes record less rainfall as compared to the windward slopes.

LADAKH is the coldest place of Jammu and Kashmir. The climate is very dry and climate. The place has a long and severe winter with the temperature going down to more than 40 degree below zero. River Zanskar, with its fast and furious waters and huge waterfalls freezes completely and huge ice sheets hang much to the astonishments of the beholders. Drass in Ladakh is the coldest place. Due to heavy snowfall, Ladakh remains cut off for the major part of the year. The night temperature usually remains below zero from September to May. The temperature in summers however soars to 45 degrees making it extremely hot. The mountains are bare and barren. The snow on them gives shapes into many rivers and lakes through the tarns, when the sun begins to shine.

KASHMIR The weather and climate of the Kashmir Division are intrinsically linked with the weather mechanism in the subcontinent in general. The location of the Kashmir Valley at a high altitude (about 1600 m) in the north-western corner of the subcontinent, surrounded by high mountains on all sides, give it a unique geographical character with distinctive climatic characteristics.

In general, the distinctive features of the climate of Kashmir are:

(i) Mild sum­mers,

(ii) Vigorous and severe winters with snowing and rain,

(iii) A muggy and oppressive weather in July and August, and

(iv) The most exquisitely pleasant spring

In the Koppen’s classification of climate the Valley of Kashmir may be placed in the Dfb category, having humid severe, raw winters and short mild summers.

On the basis of temperature and precipitation a year in the Valley of Kashmir may be divided into the following four seasons:

1. Winter Season (November to February).

2. Spring Season (March to mid-May).

3. Summer Season (mid-May to mid-September).

4. Autumn Season (mid-September to October).

1. Winter Season:

In the Valley of Kashmir, the winter season lasts from November to Febru­ary. The mean maximum and the mean minimum temperatures in November at Srinagar read about H^C and 1.5°C respectively. The tempera­ture substantially declines in December, the mean maximum and the mean minimum being about 8°C and 1.4°C respectively.

In exceptional years of se­vere cold, e.g., the last week of December 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 and 1994 in Srinagar, the temperature went below -15°C. Consequently, most of the lakes of the valley floor (Dal, Wular, Anchar, Manasbal) were frozen and be­came the playgrounds for the adventurous children and sportsmen of Srinagar and its environs.

January is the coldest month in Kashmir which is locally known as the period of Chilla-Kalan (40 days of intense cold). Occurrence of heavy snow in this month in Kashmir is a common phenomenon. The non-occurrence of snow and rainfall in January is considered as a ‘bad omen’, leading to nu­merous epidemic disease and scarcity of water in the rivers and springs during the subsequent seasons.

The winter season receives about 120 cm of snow, the maximum snowing being in the month of January, i.e. about 42 per cent of the total snowfall. The greater calamity in the winter is the oc­currence of Kot-Kushu (frost) which seems to freeze the damp moisture of the air and destroys trees and even congeals eggs.

Covered in by ice and snow with frozen lakes and freezing rivers, Kashmir during winters is like a huge refrigerator. In the winters there remains an acute shortage of fresh vegetables and at the occurrence of landslides in the Nashri area (between Ba­tote and Ramban) the vehicular traffic between Jammu and Srinagar remains suspended for days or weeks together as a result of which the supply of sheep, goats and poultry gets disrupted.

Consequently, vegetables and meat prices in the valley soar and the people of the valley face great difficulties in this period. Moreover, the Balan (fuel-wood) price goes up, the outdoor ac­tivities remain suspended and life of the ordinary people becomes miserable.

In the winter season, the rains may be either partial or may be what the Kashmiri call Alamgir (widespread). It is believed that when the clouds gather over the Kausarnag Lake on the South-west Mountains and over the Wular Lake in the north, the Kashmir can predict with some degree of cer­tainty that there will be a general rain over the valley and 24 hours of rain will cause heavy floods in the river.

The local adage based on the empirical experience of the peace about the different types of clouds and their occur­rence at different parts of the day have been expressed in the following adage:

‘Red in the night the shepherd’s delight

Red in the morning the shepherd’s warning.’

If the clouds {A bras Hetun Nai) have caught fire (become red in colour) in the evening, is a sure prelude to fine, sunny weather; Nihadu, which is red in the morning, presages (warning) rain. The Kashmiri folk have a strong conviction about the colour and nature of clouds. In their opinion white clouds (cirrus) are certain to bring heavy rain; dark clouds mean no rain or light showers.

In winters, rainfall occurs from the western disturbances (temperate cy­clones). These disturbances have their origin in the Mediterranean Sea. The rainfall generated by these cyclones is fairly widespread locally known as Alamgir. There are, however, significant variations in the Kashmir Division.

For example, the city of Srinagar records about 30 cm of rainfall during win­ter season (November to February), while rainfall during the corresponding period at Baramulla and Anantnag is about 35 and 34 cm respectively. Win­ter rainfall is much higher on either extremity of the valley. The town of Doru situated in the Anantnag District receives much higher quantities (45 cm) of rainfall to that of Srinagar.

October and November are usually dry months but in December the sky becomes overcast with cloud and haze, and by the third week of Decem­ber the snow sets in. In general, the Kashmir Division has highly dreary and monotonous winters with very little sunshine. The relative humidity usually remains around 90 per cent in winters. To combat cold people put on Pheran (a loose woolen garment), use Kangri (earthen firepot) and Bukhari (indigenous room-heater in which coal is burn to make the house warm).

Under these conditions of severe cold, the consumption of Balan (fuel-wood) is enor­mous. The common people have to spend a substantial proportion of their earnings in the purchase of fuel-wood and coal. It is the period when there is an acute shortage of fresh vegetables and the supply of sheep, goats and vege­tables from the Jammu Division, Punjab and Rajasthan is also disrupted, owing to landslides in the Nashri (National Highway between Batote, Ram­ban and Banihal).

The agricultural activities remain suspended, leading to rural Unemployment. Consequently, many of the labourers and marginal farmers out-migrate from the valley to the different cities and towns of the Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Delhi to find employment in assorted activities just to pass their winters away from the dreaded weather of the Kashmir Valley.

2. Spring Season:

March to mid-May is the season of spring locally known as South. At the ad­vent of March the weather starts improving and the mercury goes up steadily. In March, the day temperature fluctuates between 10°C to 16°C. The mean minimum temperature remains around 3°C as a result of which nights are cold. There are, however, wide variations in the day and might temperatures at various altitudes.

Although snow starts melting with the in­crease in temperature and many of the streams inundate, yet there occur one or two snowfalls in this month. In 1981 and 1982, there was heavy snowing in the last week of March. In fact, March is the wettest month, having a high frequency of western disturbances and recording about 200 mm average rain fall . The leaves on the deciduous trees like willow and Chinar (ma­ple) appear in the last week of March or the first week oFApril.

The day temperature shoots up abruptly in the month of April. The night temperature also registers a steady increase, the mean maximum and the mean minimum in this month being about 21°C and 8°C respectively, there is a further increase in the average temperature of May, the day and night temperatures being about 25°C and 11°C respectively.

There is a de­cline in the mean monthly rainfall. About 30 to 40 per cent of the total annual rainfall is recorded in the spring season at most of the rainfall record­ing stations. The rivers discharge large quantities of water as the melting of ice and snow in the high altitudes accelerates. This is the time when the transplanta­tion of paddy takes place and fodder crops like maize, millets are sown.

In the spring season, with the steady increase in temperatures, lush green grasses develop in the Margs (alpine pastures). April and May are the months when the valley is in full bloom and the flowers of almond, apple, peach, pears and cherry (Glass) add more fragrance to the fresh and salubri­ous air of the valley.

Agricultural activities which remain suspended during the long winters are again started in the ending parts of April and the first week of May. The seeds of vegetables are germinated in the house to be planted in the Radhs (floating gardens) of the Dal Lake. Ploughing of paddy fields and preparation of rice nurseries also commence in the early part of May.

3. The Summer Season:

June to September is the period of summer season in the Valley of Kashmir. The mean monthly temperature in May at Srinagar reads about 22°C, the mean maximum and mean minimum being about 29.4°C and 15°C. July is the hottest month in which the maximum temperature on a particular day may shoot up to 35°C at Srinagar.

The mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures in this month fluctuate between 30°C and 18°C respectively. Under the prevailing clear weather, blue skies and rarefied atmosphere this is the muggy, oppressive, and unpleasant in which mosquitoes swarm. July and August are the months when electric fans are needed and the rich residents of Srinagar plan their outings to Gulmarg, Pahalgam and other neighbouring hill resorts which being at higher altitudes record relatively low tempera­tures and pleasant weather.

June to September in the period of summer monsoon in the Indian sub­continent. The Valley of Kashmir being surrounded by high mountains on all sides receives very little rainfall. For example, at Srinagar the total rainfall in this period 0une to September) is only 51.3 mm which is only about 6 per cent of its average annual rainfall. The relative humidity in these months os­cillates between 40 to 60 per cent.

The sun in the months of June and July is bright, and seems as powerful just after sunrise and before sunset as it is at noon. The dryness of the air makes work in the valley very trying and tire­some. In fact, working in the paddy, maize and saffron fields after 10 a.m. becomes difficult. The elderly people of the valley opine that high tempera­tures in July and August is a recent phenomenon, and they attribute it to deforestation, high growth of population and the consequent increase in pol­lution.

The occasional showers in the months of June, July and August have especial importance for the saffron growers which help them in the easy and smooth digging of saffron fields (karewa lands). Showers sometimes fall in the beginning of September. These showers are locally known as Kambarka which are considered of immense importance to the spring crops of the sub­sequent year.

In September, the temperature begins to fall, the nights become cool and by the end of this month the evenings are almost cold. The mean maximum and the mean minimum temperatures in this month at Srinagar read as 27°C and 11°C respectively. The average monthly rainfall in September is only 13 mm (Fig

4. Autumn Season:

Mid-September to October is the period of autumn season in the Kashmir Division. These months mark a transition from the warm subtropical sum­mers to temperate winters. The months of autumn are characterised with the least disturbed weather. In this season, the skies generally remain clear, the duration of sunshine is longer and very little rainfall is recorded.

Octo­ber and November are the two months with bright, pleasant sun and cold night, and October is considered to be the healthiest and most delightful of all months in Kashmir. This season attracts the largest number of tourists in the valley from the various parts of the country and abroad.

In the month of October the mean maximum and the mean minimum temperatures read about 22°C and 5.6°C respectively. At the occurrence of clouds, the temperature, however, slumps abruptly and may read only 15°C in the day time and 2°C in the nights. The diurnal range of temperature is about 17°C. During the last sixty years, snowing in the month of October was recorded five times in the valley part of Kashmir.

The cool nights and warm days of September and October help in the ripening of walnut, almond, apples, and the later part of October when the night temperature reads about 2°C the weather is conducive for the emer­gence of saffron flowers. From the third week of October to the 15th of November is the harvesting period of saffron flowers.

During autumn sea­son the people collect and purchase Balan (fuel-wood) for the ensuing winters and harvest the numerous varieties of apples. The main staple food crop (rice) is also harvested in the months of autumn season.

After the main har­vest of rice, saffron, apple and almonds, the Kashmir arrange the wedding of their sons and daughters. Thus, it is the period of great enjoyment and social interaction. The Kashmiris on the basis of their empirical experience divide a year into six seasons with a duration of two months each.

The Kashmiri cal­endar of seasons is as under:

(i) Sonth (spring season), mid-March to mid-May.

(ii) Grishm (summer season) mid-May to mid-July.

(iii) Wahrat (rainy season) mid-July to mid September.

(iv) Harud (autumn season) mid-September to mid-November.

(v) Wand (winter season) mid-November to mid-January.

(vi) Sheshur (season of severe cold) mid-January to mid-March.

____________To be continue
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About Jammu and kashmir

State of Jammu and Kashmir is the northern most state of India and is located mostly in the Himalayan mountains, and shares a border with the states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south . Jammu and Kashmir has an international border with China in the
north and east , Pakistan-controlled territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan in the west and northwest respectively. The state has special autonomy under Article 370 of the Constitution of India.

What is the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of Jammu and Kashmir?

Latitudinal extent=32(degrees) 17' - 37(degrees) 06' N

Longitudinal extent=73(degrees) 26' - 80(degrees) 30' E ☺☺

Length from North N-S =640kms

Length from E -W = 480 kms

Area of j&k  = 2,22,236sq km
Area under POK = 78,114sqkm
Area under China { 37556sqkm
Height of j&k from sea level varies from 1000ft-28500fts (305mts - 96105)

The Map showing the Latitude and Longitude of the State Jammu and Kashmir, India

Jammu and Kashmir consists of three regions and is further divided into
22 districts
Jammu 

Kashmir Valley

Ladakh 

Percentage area of each division is Jammu 19%
Kashmir 11%
Ladakh 70%

Countries bordering j&k are 
Pakistan ,China ,Afghanistan
Neighbouring States are 
Punjab And Haryana 

LEH IS THE LARGEST DISTRICT OF J&K ( AREA WISE) and WHILE SHOPIAN IS THE SMALLEST DISTRICT..
THE MOST POPULOUS DIST IS JAMMU AND LEAST POPULOUS IS KARGIL  AND SECOND LEAST POPULOUS IS Leh 

Geographically state can be divided into four zones 

First - The mountains and semi mountainious planes commonly known as Kandi belt 

Second - The hills including Shiwaliks range.

Third The mountain of Kashmir and peer panchal 

Fourth - Tibetan tract of Ladakh and kargil 

• Jammu and kashmir factfiles

• Srinagr is an ancient city ,founded by the Askoha ,it was then called pravapura 
• Kashmir is a land of lakes and Rivers
• Srinagar is also known as Venice of the East 
• Kulgam is also known as Rice Bowl of kashmir 
• Budgam is also known as Land of springs 
• Leh is called The Red land or the land of Broken moon

__________To be continue 
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Top 10 Common Mistakes Every UPSC CSE Aspirant Must Avoid!

This article is brought to you by Oliveboard, an online exam preparation platform for government and banking jobs.

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Preparing for the UPSC Civil Services Examination is a challenging task. The syllabus is as vast as the ocean. UPSC CSE Preliminary exam is the first hurdle that one needs to clear to qualify for the Main examination. It is an objective type exam, consisting of two papers and carry a maximum of 400 marks.Marks obtained in the Preliminary examination will not be counted for determining the candidates’ final order of merit. To qualify for the Main exam, candidates must score qualifying marks (as determined by the commission) in the General Studies Paper I and a minimum of 33% in the General Studies Paper II (CSAT). For each wrong answer, the candidate loses one-third (0.33) of the marks assigned to that question.

As the syllabus is vast, many a times UPSC aspirants unconsciously make few common mistakes. Here’s a list of those that aspirants should make a conscious attempt to avoid, to crack the UPSC exams next year.

    1.     Not Going Through Syllabus

Aspirants might be preparing for more than one competitive exams at the same time. However, one should always thoroughly check the syllabus and exam pattern and prepare for that exam accordingly. The UPSC syllabus is vast and if you do not refer to the syllabus, you might feel lost in an ocean.

    2.     Not Having a Preparation Plan

Are you preparing for the UPSC CSE next year? If yes, then create a preparation plan rather than studying topics randomly. Create a plan and schedule for every day and weekend studies. Try to stick to the plan as far possible. Also, do dedicate study hours for each section.

    3.     Too Many Reference Books

Too many reference books will just make you confuse and do less help. Instead, you can stick to 1 or 2 good books for each section. NCERT Books (6-12 standard) are highly recommended for UPSC exams. Here’s a list of few more UPSCreference books.

    4.     Not Reading Newspapers

Reading newspapers is very important to clear the UPSC exam. The Hindu is the most widely recommended newspaper for competitive exams. This habit will keep you updated with the current affairs, social, political and economic state of the country and more.

    5.     Ignoring CSAT

Do not ignore the CSAT as it acts as a screening test to Civil Services Main examination.

    6.     Focusing Too Much on One Topic

This will again waste a lot of your precious time. Have a clear understanding of concepts and practice questions from that topic. As an aspirant, you might have favourite topics but do not focus on one topic. Instead, dedicate study hours for each topic.

    7.     Not Taking Mock Tests

Clear concepts would do no good till you practice mock tests. You might know the answers but due to lack of time in the exam might not be able to attempt. Mock Tests prepare you well for the exam both knowledge wise and time management wise. Therefore, practice as many mocks possible and do mock analysis after every attempt. You can avail Oliveboard’s mocksto practice and do mock analysis for better preparation.

    8.     No Writing Practice

Writing practice is important in UPSC as the main examination is essay type and one needs to be capable of writing essay type answers. Practice this while preparing for the exam to get an edge during the exam.

    9.     Not Revising

Plan time for revision because it is important to brush up all the concepts you have studied before the exam. Like preparation plan, create a revision plan and stick to it for efficiency.

    10.Last Minute Preparation

Do not wait for last minute preparation. Start your study well in advance to get a good hold over all sections for the exam. Also, do not learn any new concepts during the last few days. Instead, revise all the concepts you have already studied.

Hope this helps. We wish you all the best for your preparation.    

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